Chile
The northern Chilean desert contains great mineral wealth,
principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates the
country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area
also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded
in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and
southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing
lands and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern
coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas,
and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.
About 85% of Chile's population lives in urban areas, with 40%
living in greater Santiago. Most have Spanish ancestry. A small, yet
influential number of Irish and English immigrants came to Chile
during the colonial period. German immigration began in 1848 and
lasted for 90 years; the southern provinces of Valdivia, Llanquihue,
and Osorno show a strong German influence. Other significant
immigrant groups are Italian, Croatian, Basque, and Palestinian.
About 800,000 Native Americans, mostly of the Mapuche tribe, reside
in the south-central area. The Aymara and Diaguita groups can be
found mainly in Chile's northern desert valleys. |
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About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indians settled in fertile valleys
and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended
their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's
barrenness prevented extensive settlement. The first Europeans to
arrive in Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish
conquistadors, who came from Peru seeking gold in 1535. The Spanish
encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures
in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported
themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and
hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was
carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's
lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on February 12, 1541.
Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they
sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's
central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation
of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A
national junta in the name of Ferdinand--heir to the deposed
king--was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile
an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for
total independence soon won a wide following. Spanish attempts to
reimpose arbitrary rule during what was called the "Reconquista" led
to a prolonged struggle.
Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by
Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot, and José de San
Martín, hero of Argentine independence, crossed the Andes into Chile
and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was
proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership. The
political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th
century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified
colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family
politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency
eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained extremely
powerful. Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in
Santiago consolidated its position in the south by suppressing the
Mapuche Indians. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina
confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a
result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879-83),
Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and
acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to
an era of national affluence. Chile established a parliamentary
democracy in the late 19th century, but degenerated into a system
protecting the interests of the ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the
emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a
reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative
congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support
arose.
Continuing political and economic instability resulted with the rule
of the quasi-dictatorial Gen. Carlos Ibanez (1924-32). When
constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class
party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition
governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical
Party dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the
economy.
The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo
Frei-Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major
reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei
administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic
programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform,
including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967,
however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who
charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives,
who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had
accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully
achieved his party's ambitious goals. In 1970, Senator Salvador
Allende, a Marxist and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed
the "Popular Unity" (UP) coalition of socialists, communists,
radicals, and dissident Christian Democrats, won a plurality of
votes in a three-way contest and was named President by the Chilean
Congress. His program included the nationalization of private
industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and
collectivization. Allende's program also included the
nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines.
Elected with only 36% of the vote and by a plurality of only 36,000
votes, Allende never enjoyed majority support in the Chilean
Congress or broad popular support. Domestic production declined;
severe shortages of consumer goods, food, and manufactured products
were widespread; and inflation reached 1,000% per annum. Mass
demonstrations, recurring strikes, violence by both government
supporters and opponents, and widespread rural unrest ensued in
response to the general deterioration of the economy. By 1973,
Chilean society had split into two hostile camps.
A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the
armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende reportedly
committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto
Pinochet, took over control of the country. The first years of the
regime in particular were marked by serious human rights violations.
A new Constitution was approved by a plebiscite on September 11,
1980, and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an
8-year term. In its later years, the regime gradually permitted
greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include
trade union activity. In contrast to its authoritarian political
rule, the military government pursued decidedly laissez-faire
economic policies. During its 16 years in power, Chile moved away
from economic statism toward a largely free market economy that
fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment. In
a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a
second 8-year term as president. Chileans voted for elections to
choose a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber
congress. On December 14, 1989, Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin,
the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the
Concertacion, was elected president. Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994
and was succeeded by another Christian Democrat, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle
(son of Frei-Montalva), leading the same coalition, for a 6-year
term. Ricardo Lagos Escobar of the Socialist Party and the Party for
Democracy led the Concertacion to a narrower victory in the 2000
presidential elections. His term ended on March 11, 2006, when
President Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, took
office. |
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