Yemen was one of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near
East. Between the 12th century BC and the 6th century AD, it was
part of the Minaean, Sabaean, and Himyarite kingdoms, which
controlled the lucrative spice trade, and later came under Ethiopian
and Persian rule. In the 7th century, Islamic caliphs began to exert
control over the area. After this caliphate broke up, the former
north Yemen came under control of Imams of various dynasties usually
of the Zaidi sect, who established a theocratic political structure
that survived until modern times. (Imam is a religious term. The
Shi’ites apply it to the prophet Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, his sons
Hassan and Hussein, and subsequent lineal descendants, whom they
consider to have been divinely ordained unclassified successors of
the prophet.)
Egyptian Sunni caliphs occupied much of north Yemen throughout the
11th century. By the 16th century and again in the 19th century,
north Yemen was part of the Ottoman Empire, and in some periods its
Imams exerted control over south Yemen.
Former North Yemen
Ottoman control was largely confined to cities with the Imam's
suzerainty over tribal areas formally recognized. Turkish forces
withdrew in 1918, and Imam Yahya strengthened his control over north
Yemen. Yemen became a member of the Arab league in 1945 and the
United Nations in 1947.
Imam Yahya died during an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1948 and was
succeeded by his son Ahmad, who ruled until his death in September
1962. Imam Ahmad's reign was marked by growing repression, renewed
friction with the United Kingdom over the British presence in the
south, and growing pressures to support the Arab nationalist
objectives of Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser.
Shortly after assuming power in 1962, Ahmad's son, Badr, was deposed
by revolutionary forces, which took control of Sanaa and created the
Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). Egypt assisted the YAR with troops and
supplies to combat forces loyal to the Imamate. Saudi Arabia and
Jordan supported Badr's royalist forces to oppose the newly formed
republic. Conflict continued periodically until 1967 when Egyptian
troops were withdrawn. By 1968, following a final royalist siege of
Sanaa, most of the opposing leaders reconciled; Saudi Arabia
recognized the Republic in 1970.
Former South Yemen
British influence increased in the south and eastern portion of
Yemen after the British captured the port of Aden in 1839. It was
ruled as part of British India until 1937, when Aden was made a
crown colony with the remaining land designated as east Aden and
west Aden protectorates. By 1965, most of the tribal states within
the protectorates and the Aden colony proper had joined to form the
British-sponsored federation of south Arabia.
In 1965, two rival nationalist groups--the Front for the Liberation
of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY) and the National Liberation Front
(NLF)--turned to terrorism in their struggle to control the country.
In 1967, in the face of uncontrollable violence, British troops
began withdrawing, federation rule collapsed, and NLF elements took
control after eliminating their FLOSY rivals. South Arabia,
including Aden, was declared independent on November 30, 1967, and
was renamed the People's Republic of South Yemen. In June 1969, a
radical wing of the Marxist NLF gained power and changed the
country's name on December 1, 1970, to the People's Democratic
Republic of Yemen (PDRY). In the PDRY, all political parties were
amalgamated into the Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP), which became the
only legal party. The PDRY established close ties with the Soviet
Union, China, Cuba, and radical Palestinians.
Republic of Yemen
In 1972, the governments of the PDRY and the YAR declared that they
approved a future union. However, little progress was made toward
unification, and relations were often strained. In 1979, simmering
tensions led to fighting, which was only resolved after Arab League
mediation. The northern and southern heads of state reaffirmed the
goal of unity during a summit meeting in Kuwait in March 1979.
However, that same year the PDRY began sponsoring an insurgency
against the YAR. In April 1980, PDRY President Abdul Fattah Ismail
resigned and went into exile. His successor, Ali Nasir Muhammad,
took a less interventionist stance toward both the YAR and
neighboring Oman. On January 13, 1986, a violent struggle began in
Aden between Ali Nasir Muhammad and the returned Abdul Fattah Ismail
and their supporters. Fighting lasted for more than a month and
resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasir's ouster, and
Ismail's death. Some 60,000 persons, including Ali Nasir and his
supporters, fled to the YAR.
In May 1988, the YAR and PDRY governments came to an understanding
that considerably reduced tensions including agreement to renew
discussions concerning unification, to establish a joint oil
exploration area along their undefined border, to demilitarize the
border, and to allow Yemenis unrestricted border passage on the
basis of only a national identification card.
In November 1989, the leaders of the YAR (Ali Abdullah Saleh) and
the PDRY (Ali Salim Al-Bidh) agreed on a draft unity constitution
originally drawn up in 1981. The Republic of Yemen (ROY) was
declared on May 22, 1990. Ali Abdullah Saleh became President, and
Ali Salim Al-Bidh became Vice President.
A 30-month transitional period for completing the unification of the
two political and economic systems was set. A presidential council
was jointly elected by the 26-member YAR advisory council and the
17-member PDRY presidium. The presidential council appointed a Prime
Minister, who formed a Cabinet. There was also a 301-seat
provisional unified Parliament, consisting of 159 members from the
north, 111 members from the south, and 31 independent members
appointed by the chairman of the council.
A unity constitution was agreed upon in May 1990 and ratified by the
populace in May 1991. It affirmed Yemen's commitment to free
elections, a multiparty political system, the right to own private
property, equality under the law, and respect of basic human rights.
Parliamentary elections were held on April 27, 1993. International
groups assisted in the organization of the elections and observed
actual balloting. The resulting Parliament included 143 GPC, 69 YSP,
63 Islah (Yemeni Grouping for Reform, a party composed of various
tribal and religious groups). The head of Islah, Paramount Hashid
Sheik Abdullah Bin Hussein Al-Ahmar, was elected speaker of
Parliament, and continues in that capacity.
Islah was invited into the ruling coalition, and the presidential
council was altered to include one Islah member. Conflicts within
the coalition resulted in the self-imposed exile of Vice President
Ali Salim Al-Bidh to Aden beginning in August 1993 and a
deterioration in the general security situation as political rivals
settled scores and tribal elements took advantage of the unsettled
situation.
Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas (former southern Prime Minister) continued
to serve as the ROY Prime Minister, but his government was
ineffective due to political infighting. Continuous negotiations
between northern and southern leaders resulted in the signing of the
document of pledge and accord in Amman, Jordan on February 20, 1994.
Despite this, clashes intensified until civil war broke out in early
May 1994.
Almost all of the actual fighting in the 1994 civil war occurred in
the southern part of the country despite air and missile attacks
against cities and major installations in the north. Southerners
sought support from neighboring states and received billions of
dollars of equipment and financial assistance. The United States
strongly supported Yemeni unity, but repeatedly called for a
cease-fire and a return to the negotiating table. Various attempts,
including by a UN special envoy, were unsuccessful in bringing about
a cease-fire.
Southern leaders declared secession and the establishment of the
Democratic Republic of Yemen (DRY) on May 21, 1994, but the DRY was
not recognized by the international community. Ali Nasir Muhammad
supporters greatly assisted military operations against the
secessionists and Aden was captured on July 7, 1994. Other
resistance quickly collapsed and thousands of southern leaders and
military went into exile.
Early during the fighting, President Ali Abdullah Saleh announced a
general amnesty, which applied to everyone except a list of 16
persons. Most southerners returned to Yemen after a short exile.
An armed opposition was announced from Saudi Arabia, but no
significant incidents within Yemen materialized. The government
prepared legal cases against four southern leaders--Ali Salim Al-
Bidh, Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas, Abd Al-Rahman Ali Al-Jifri, and
Salih Munassar Al-Siyali--for misappropriation of official funds.
Abd Al-Rahman Ali Al-Rahman was allowed to return to Yemen in 2006.
Others on the list of 16 were told informally they could return to
take advantage of the amnesty, but most remained outside Yemen.
Although many of Ali Nasir Muhammad's followers were appointed to
senior governmental positions (including Vice President, Chief of
Staff, and Governor of Aden), Ali Nasir Muhammad himself remained
abroad in Syria.
In the aftermath of the civil war, YSP leaders within Yemen
reorganized the party and elected a new politburo in July 1994.
However, the party remained disheartened and without its former
influence.
In 1994, amendments to the unity constitution eliminated the
presidential council. President Ali Abdullah Saleh was elected by
Parliament on October 1, 1994 to a 5-year term. In April 1997, Yemen
held its second multiparty parliamentary elections. The country held
its first direct presidential elections in September 1999, electing
President Ali Abdullah Saleh to a 5-year term in what were generally
considered free and fair elections.
Constitutional amendments adopted in the summer of 2000 extended the
presidential term by 2 years, creating a seven-year presidential
term. The constitution provides that henceforth the President will
be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates selected by
the legislature. The amendments also extended the parliamentary term
of office to a 6-year term, with the next elections occurring in
2009. On February 20, 2001, a new constitutional amendment created a
bicameral legislature consisting of a Shura Council (111 seats;
members appointed by the president) and a House of Representatives
(301 seats; members elected by popular vote). In April 2003, the
third multiparty parliamentary elections were held with improvements
in voter registration for both men and women and in a generally free
and fair atmosphere. Two women were elected. In September 2006,
citizens re-elected President Saleh to a second term in a generally
open and competitive election, although there were multiple problems
with the voting process and use of state resources on behalf of the
ruling party. |
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