In the 16th century, Burundi was a kingdom characterized by a
hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange. A
king (mwani) headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) that owned most
of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers and
herders. In the mid-18th century, this Tutsi royalty consolidated
authority over land, production, and distribution with the
development of the ubugabire--a patron-client relationship in which
the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and
land tenure.
Although European explorers and missionaries made brief visits to
the area as early as 1856, it was not until 1899 that Burundi came
under German East African administration. In 1916 Belgian troops
occupied the area. In 1923, the League of Nations mandated to
Belgium the territory of Ruanda-Urundi, encompassing modern-day
Rwanda and Burundi. The Belgians administered the territory through
indirect rule, building on the Tutsi-dominated aristocratic
hierarchy. Following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi became a United
Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.
After 1948, Belgium permitted the emergence of competing political
parties. Two political parties emerged: the Union for National
Progress (UPRONA), a multi-ethnic party led by Tutsi Prince Louis
Rwagasore and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) supported by
Belgium. In 1961, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated following an
UPRONA victory in legislative elections.
Full independence was achieved on July 1, 1962. In the context of
weak democratic institutions at independence, Tutsi King Mwambutsa
IV established a constitutional monarchy comprising equal numbers of
Hutus and Tutsis. The 1965 assassination of the Hutu prime minister
set in motion a series of destabilizing Hutu revolts and subsequent
governmental repression. In 1966, King Mwambutsa was deposed by his
son, Prince Ntare IV, who himself was deposed the same year by a
military coup led by Capt. Michel Micombero. Micombero abolished the
monarchy and declared a republic, although a de facto military
regime emerged. In 1972, an aborted Hutu rebellion triggered the
flight of hundreds of thousands of Burundians. Civil unrest
continued throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s.
In 1976, Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza took power in a bloodless coup.
Although Bagaza led a Tutsi-dominated military regime, he encouraged
land reform, electoral reform, and national reconciliation. In 1981,
a new constitution was promulgated. In 1984, Bagaza was elected head
of state, as the sole candidate. After his election, Bagaza's human
rights record deteriorated as he suppressed religious activities and
detained political opposition members.
In 1987, Maj. Pierre Buyoya overthrew Colonel Bagaza. He dissolved
opposition parties, suspended the 1981 constitution, and instituted
his ruling Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN). During
1988, increasing tensions between the ruling Tutsis and the majority
Hutus resulted in violent confrontations between the army, the Hutu
opposition, and Tutsi hardliners. During this period, an estimated
150,000 people were killed, with tens of thousands of refugees
flowing to neighboring countries. Buyoya formed a commission to
investigate the causes of the 1988 unrest and to develop a charter
for democratic reform.
In 1991, Buyoya approved a constitution that provided for a
president, multi-ethnic government, and a parliament. Burundi's
first Hutu president, Melchior Ndadaye, of the Hutu-dominated
FRODEBU Party, was elected in 1993. He was assassinated by factions
of the Tutsi-dominated armed forces in October 1993. The country was
then plunged into civil war, in which tens of thousands of people
were killed and hundreds of thousands were displaced by the time the
FRODEBU government regained control and elected Cyprien Ntaryamira
president in January 1994. Nonetheless, the security situation
continued to deteriorate. In April 1994, President Ntayamira and
Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana died in a plane crash. This
act marked the beginning of the Rwandan genocide, while in Burundi,
the death of Ntaryamira exacerbated the violence and unrest.
Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was installed as president for a 4-year
term on April 8, but the security situation further deteriorated.
The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees and the
activities of armed Hutu and Tutsi groups further destabilized the
regime.
Burundi's civil war officially ended in 2006 under a South
Africa-brokered cease-fire agreement with the last of Burundi's
rebel groups. Today the government is focused on rebuilding its
infrastructure and reestablishing external relations with its
regional neighbors. |
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