Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and
archeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society
has existed for much longer. Egyptians take pride in their
"pharaonic heritage" and in their descent from what they consider
mankind's earliest civilization. The Arabic word for Egypt is Misr,
which originally connoted "civilization" or "metropolis."
Archeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the
Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. By 6000
B.C., organized agriculture had appeared.
In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or
Menes, who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's
ancient history is divided--the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the
New Empire. The pyramids at Giza (near Cairo), which were built in
the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion
and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu (also known
as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power,
wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire
(1567-1085 B.C.).
Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab Conquerors
In 525 B., Cambyses, the son of Cyrus the Great, led a Persian
invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty.
The country remained a Persian province until conquered by Alexander
the Great in 322 BC, ushering in Ptolemeic rule Egypt that lasted
for nearly 300 years.
Following a brief Persian reconquest, Egypt was invaded and
conquered by Arab forces in 642. A process of Arabization and
Islamization ensued. Although a Coptic Christian minority
remained--and remains today, constituting about 10% of the
population--the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous
Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab,
Mameluke, and Ottoman caliphs, beys, and sultans ruled the country.
European Influence
The Ottoman Turks controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for
a brief period of French rule under Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1805,
Mohammed Ali, commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops,
was appointed Pasha, founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt until his
great-great grandson, Farouk I, was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali
the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, ushering in the modern history of
Egypt. The growth of modern urban Cairo began in the reign of Ismail
(1863-79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the
construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval
core. The Suez Canal was completed in his reign in 1869, and its
completion was celebrated by many events, including the
commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the
building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally
constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now
the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).
In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the
Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the
virtual inclusion of Egypt within the British Empire. In deference
to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian
independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to
dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative,
and governmental reforms.
In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed
with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political
organization strongly opposed to British influence; King Fuad, whom
the British had installed during World War II; and the British
themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal.
Other political forces emerging in this period included the
communist party (1925) and the Muslim Brotherhood (1928), which
eventually became a potent political and religious force.
During World War II, British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied
operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to
the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings
continued to grow after the war. On July 22-23, 1952, a group of
disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col.
Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed
for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with Israel. Following
a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923
constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser
evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the Arab
world, promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized
Egypt's economy.
Nasser helped establish the Non-Aligned Movement of developing
countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in
the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up
military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis Moscow,
Nasser concluded an arms deal with Czechoslovakia in September 1955.
When the U.S. and the World Bank withdrew their offer to help
finance the Aswan High Dam in mid-1956, Nasser nationalized the
privately owned Suez Canal Company. The crisis that followed,
exacerbated by growing tensions with Israel over guerrilla attacks
from Gaza and Israeli reprisals, resulted in the invasion of Egypt
that October by France, Britain, and Israel.
Nasser's domestic policies were arbitrary and frequently oppressive,
yet generally popular. All opposition was stamped out, and opponents
of the regime frequently were imprisoned without trial. Nasser's
foreign and military policies helped provoke the Israeli attack of
June 1967 that virtually destroyed Egypt's armed forces along with
those of Jordan and Syria. Israel also occupied the Sinai Peninsula,
the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. Nasser,
nonetheless, was revered by the masses in Egypt and elsewhere in the
Arab world until his death in 1970.
After Nasser's death, another of the original "free officers," Vice
President Anwar el-Sadat, was elected President. In 1971, Sadat
concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union, but a year
later, ordered Soviet advisers to leave. In 1973, he launched the
October war with Israel, in which Egypt's armed forces achieved
initial successes but were defeated in Israeli counterattacks.
Camp David and the Peace Process
In a momentous change from the Nasser era, President Sadat shifted
Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful
accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai
Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh
opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Jerusalem in November
1977. This led to President Jimmy Carter's invitation to President
Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to join him in trilateral
negotiations at Camp David.
The historic Camp David accords were signed by Egypt and Israel and
witnessed by the U.S. on September 17, 1978. The accords led to the
March 26, 1979 signing of the Egypt-Israel peace treaty, by which
Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982. Throughout this
period, U.S.-Egyptian relations steadily improved, but Sadat's
willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him
the enmity of most other Arab states.
Domestic Change
Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic
policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "open
door." This relaxed government controls over the economy and
encouraged private, including foreign, investment. Sadat dismantled
much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number
of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during
the Nasser era.
Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and
the legal banning of torture. Sadat tried to expand participation in
the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this
effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was racked by violence
arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions,
and it experienced a renewed measure of repression.
From Sadat to Mubarak
On October 6, 1981, Islamic extremists assassinated President Sadat.
Hosni Mubarak, Vice President since 1975 and air force commander
during the October 1973 war, was elected President later that month.
He was subsequently confirmed by popular referendum for four more
6-year terms, most recently in September 2005. Mubarak has
maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while
at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as an Arab leader.
Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League in 1989. Egypt also has
played a moderating role in such international fora as the UN and
the Non-Aligned Movement.
Since 1991, Mubarak has overseen a domestic economic reform program
to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the
private sector. There has been less progress in political reform.
The November 2000 People's Assembly elections saw 34 members of the
opposition win seats in the 454-seat assembly, facing a clear
majority of 388 ultimately affiliated with the ruling National
Democratic Party (NDP). Opposition parties continue to face various
difficulties in mounting credible electoral challenges to the NDP.
The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, remains an illegal
organization and is not recognized as a political party (current
Egyptian law prohibits the formation of political parties based on
religion). Members are known publicly and openly speak their views,
although they do not explicitly identify themselves as members of
the organization. Members of the Brotherhood have been elected to
the People's Assembly and local councils as independents, and most
recently scored a major victory in 2005 parliamentary elections,
winning 20% of the seats, thus forming the largest opposition group. |
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