United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's population in 2004 surpassed 60 million--the
third-largest in the European Union. Its overall population density
is one of the highest in the world. Almost one-third of the
population lives in England's prosperous and fertile southeast and
is predominantly urban and suburban--with about 7.2 million in the
capital of London, which remains the largest city in Europe. The
United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to
universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870
and secondary level in 1900. Education is mandatory from ages 5
through 16. About one-fifth of British students go on to
post-secondary education. The Church of England and the Church of
Scotland are the official churches in their respective parts of the
country, but most religions found in the world are represented in
the United Kingdom.
A group of islands close to continental Europe, the British Isles
have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from
Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for
several centuries. Contemporary Britons are descended mainly from
the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century.
The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences
were blended in Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who
had lived in Northern France. Although Celtic languages persist in
Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, the predominant language is
English, which is primarily a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
French. |
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The Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC and most of Britain's
subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated
development and brought more active contacts with the rest of
Europe. As Rome's strength declined, the country again was exposed
to invasion--including the pivotal incursions of the Angles, Saxons,
and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD--up to the Norman
conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured Britain's safety
from further intrusions; certain institutions, which remain
characteristic of Britain, could develop. Among these are a
political, administrative, cultural, and economic center in London;
a separate but established church; a system of common law;
distinctive and distinguished university education; and
representative government.
Union
Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that resisted
English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under
Edward I, and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2
years later. To appease the Welsh, Edward's son (later Edward II),
who had been born in Wales, was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The
tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British
Monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and
administrative union of England and Wales.
While maintaining separate parliaments, England and Scotland were
ruled under one crown beginning in 1603, when James VI of Scotland
succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the
ensuing 100 years, strong religious and political differences
divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England and Scotland were
unified as Great Britain, sharing a single Parliament at
Westminster.
Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of
strife. Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the
early 17th century, large-scale settlement of the north from
Scotland and England began. After its defeat, Ireland was subjected,
with varying degrees of success, to control and regulation by
Britain.
The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on
January 1, 1801, under the name of the United Kingdom. However,
armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the 20th
century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free
State, which subsequently left the Commonwealth and became a
republic after World War II. Six northern, predominantly Protestant,
Irish counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.
British Expansion and Empire
Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087)
holdings in France, Britain's policy of active involvement in
continental European affairs endured for several hundred years. By
the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool
exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.
The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English
trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588
firmly established England as a major sea power. Thereafter, its
interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice
trade, English mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In
search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands, John Cabot
reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh
organized the first, short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584, and
permanent English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia.
During the next two centuries, Britain extended its influence abroad
and consolidated its political development at home.
Great Britain's industrial revolution greatly strengthened its
ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic
Wars in 1815, the United Kingdom was the foremost European power,
and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe allowed the British to
focus their interests on more remote parts of the world, and, during
this period, the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial
expansion reached its height largely during the reign of Queen
Victoria (1837-1901). Queen Victoria's reign witnessed the spread of
British technology, commerce, language, and government throughout
the British Empire, which, at its greatest extent, encompassed
roughly one-fifth to one-quarter of the world's area and population.
British colonies contributed to the United Kingdom's extraordinary
economic growth and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even as
the United Kingdom extended its imperial reach overseas, it
continued to develop and broaden its democratic institutions at
home.
20th Century
By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, other nations,
including the United States and Germany, had developed their own
industries; the United Kingdom's comparative economic advantage had
lessened, and the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The losses and
destruction of World War I, the depression of the 1930s, and decades
of relatively slow growth eroded the United Kingdom's preeminent
international position of the previous century.
Britain's control over its empire loosened during the interwar
period. Ireland, with the exception of six northern counties, gained
independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Nationalism became
stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and
Egypt.
In 1926, the United Kingdom, completing a process begun a century
earlier, granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand complete
autonomy within the empire. They became charter members of the
British Commonwealth of Nations (now known as the Commonwealth), an
informal but closely-knit association that succeeded the empire.
Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the
remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled.
Today, most of Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth,
almost all of them as independent members. There are, however, 13
former British colonies--including Bermuda, Gibraltar, the Falkland
Islands, and others--which have elected to continue their political
links with London and are known as United Kingdom Overseas
Territories.
Although often marked by economic and political nationalism, the
Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice in matters concerning
many developing countries. In addition, the Commonwealth helps
preserve many institutions deriving from British experience and
models, such as parliamentary democracy, in those countries. |
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