 The Second First Lady
October 25, 1764 -
Abigail Smith Married John Adams
Abigail Smith married John Adams, a young lawyer, on October
25, 1764, starting an eventful 54-year partnership. Through
the years, the Adamses moved from colonial Boston, where
they experienced the American Revolution, to London and
Paris, where they acted as diplomats, to the White House in
Washington, D.C., where they were its first residents.
Abigail Adams kept track of these events, and many others
that formed our nation in the letters she wrote to John. She
and her husband corresponded with each other regularly while
he attended the Continental Congress and Constitutional
Convention in Philadelphia between 1774 and 1783, and again
from 1789 to 1800. They also exchanged letters when she
traveled between the family home in Quincy, Massachusetts,
and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where John Adams was serving
as the nation's first vice president before becoming its
second president in 1797.
After his presidential term, the couple retired to their
family home, where they spent the next 17 years. But that
was not the last of the Adams family in the White House.
John and Abigail's son, John Quincy Adams, became the sixth
president of the United States. Do you know of any other
presidents whose relatives also became president? |
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Go West, Young Man
June 7, 1769 -
Daniel Boone First Saw the Woodlands
of Present-Day Kentucky
Have you ever been camping and thought you had discovered a
place that no one else had ever seen? Have you ever been
lost in the woods? Imagine wandering through mountains and
wilderness that had never been explored and blazing a trail
that others would follow. If you can imagine doing this, you
are a lot like Daniel Boone.
For months, Boone trekked through forests in the Appalachian
Mountains, where few Anglo-Americans had ever been. On June
7, 1769, Boone reached the summit of a ridge and saw the
forests and valleys of what is now Kentucky. He realized
then that he had made it across the mountains to the forests
on the other side. This trail became known as Wilderness
Road and would become one of the main roads for people
traveling west. It opened up vast amounts of land for
further exploration.
June 7 is celebrated as "Boone Day" in Kentucky. Daniel
Boone is considered a hero, not for wearing a raccoon-skin
cap, which he is said to have done, but for building a road
to the state of Kentucky. |
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Go Big Green!
December 13, 1769 -
Reverend Eleazar Wheelock Started
Dartmouth College
The "Big Green," Dartmouth College, is one of the most
prestigious universities in the U.S., but it started out in
a log hut. A minister, Reverend Eleazar Wheelock, founded
this college with a royal charter on December 13, 1769.
Since 1754, Wheelock had been trying to sustain a Charity
School for Native Americans. Moving to the province of New
Hampshire, he succeeded with the help of Royal Governor John
Wentworth in obtaining the charter for a college. It would
provide "education and instruction of Youth and of the
Indian Tribes in this Land . . . and also of English Youth
and any others."
The college, the ninth oldest in the United States, was
situated on land provided by Royal Governor Wentworth, and
was named in honor of William Legge, the Earl of Dartmouth,
a friend of Wentworth's and an important financial backer.
Dartmouth's first class met in a single log hut in Hanover,
New Hampshire, in 1770 with just four students attending.
The college grew and prospered. In 1815, Dartmouth became
the stage for a constitutional drama that had far-reaching
effects. Claiming its 1769 charter invalid, the New
Hampshire legislature established a separate governing body
for the College and changed its name to Dartmouth
University. The trustees took the case to the U.S. Supreme
Court.
Lawyer and later Secretary of State Daniel Webster (a
Dartmouth graduate, class of 1801) argued that the original
charter was still valid, and Dartmouth should be allowed to
continue as a private institution free of interference from
the state. Justice Marshall and the Supreme Court agreed.
The Dartmouth College case paved the way for other private
American institutions of higher learning.
Dartmouth today is still a small private college, coed since
1972, with about 4,300 undergraduates and 1,200 graduate
students representing every state and 40 nations. Theodor
"Dr. Seuss" Geisel (class of 1925) is among notable
Dartmouth graduates. The motto of "Big Green" is vox
clamantis in deserto, which means "a voice crying in the
wilderness"--an apt saying, remembering its beginnings in a
small log hut. |
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Boston Massacre - A Battle for
Liberty
March 5, 1770 -
Boston Massacre
Tensions between the American colonists and the British were
already running high in the early spring of 1770. Late in
the afternoon, on March 5, a crowd of jeering Bostonians
slinging snowballs gathered around a small group of British
soldiers guarding the Boston Customs House. The soldiers
became enraged after one of them had been hit, and they
fired into the crowd, even though they were under orders not
to fire. Five colonists were shot and killed.
The first person who was hit when the British soldiers began
firing was an African American sailor named Crispus Attucks.
Although not much is known about his past, it's likely that
Attucks escaped slavery around 1750 and worked on whaling
ships for the next 20 years. Of the five civilians who died
in the Boston Massacre, Attucks is the only one who became
widely known, and he became the first hero of the American
Revolution.
Conflicts between the British and the colonists had been on
the rise because the British government had been trying to
increase control over the colonies and raise taxes at the
same time. The event in Boston helped to unite the colonies
against Britain. What started as a minor fight became a
turning point in the beginnings of the American Revolution.
The Boston Massacre helped spark the colonists' desire for
American independence, while the dead rioters became martyrs
for liberty. Can you think of other major events in history
that began with a small incident? |
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 From Slavery to Poetry
September 1, 1773 -
Phillis Wheatley, the First African
American Published Book of Poetry
Phillis Wheatley was only seven or eight years old when she
was captured and taken from her home in West Africa. A slave
ship brought her to Boston in 1761. Knowing nothing of the
talents she would soon show the world, John Wheatley, a
prosperous tailor, and his wife, Susanna, purchased the
young girl directly from the ship and named her Phillis
Wheatley.
Wheatley grew up to be a poet. Her collection, Poems on
Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, was published on
September 1, 1773. How did she become the first African
American writer to publish a book of poetry, when most
slaves were forbidden to learn to read and write?
One day, the Wheatleys saw Phillis writing on a wall with
chalk. Rather than punish her, the Wheatleys encouraged her
to learn. Their daughter tutored her in reading and writing.
Wheatley also studied English literature, Latin, and the
Bible, but what she did best was to write poetry. Her first
poem was published in the Newport Mercury newspaper in 1767.
Six years later, in the service of the Wheatley family,
Phillis Wheatley sailed to London where she hoped to meet
Selina Hasting, the Countess of Huntingdon. While they were
not able to meet in person, the Countess helped Wheatley
publish a volume of her poetry in 1773. Wheatley had another
surprise waiting for her back in America.
Soon after she returned home, Wheatley was given her
freedom. As a free woman, she published both an antislavery
letter and a poem to George Washington, whom she had met.
Washington wrote to Wheatley, thanking her and praising her
"great poetical Talents."
Phillis Wheatley married John Peters, a free black man, in
1778 and published three more poems. Her husband, however,
was not as successful in business. Wheatley became a servant
later on in her life, and when she died, she was very poor.
Although she died poor, she died a free woman. |
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Who Is Lewis of Lewis and Clark?
August 18, 1774 -
Explorer, Meriwether Lewis Was Born
Have you ever wondered who first discovered the place where
you live? Back in the days when the country was largely
unpopulated, explorers used to travel across the land
finding new areas where people could settle. One famous
explorer is Meriwether Lewis. Born on August 18, 1774, near
Charlottesville, Virginia, Lewis was known for teaming with
William Clark and blazing a trail across the country to the
Pacific Ocean.
Lewis grew up in the woods near Monticello, Thomas
Jefferson's home, and when Jefferson became president in
1801, Lewis became his private secretary. Two years later
Jefferson asked Lewis to lead an exploration of the
Louisiana Purchase--the large piece of land that the U.S.
acquired from France in 1803.
Together, Lewis and Clark kept a detailed journal of their
three-year expedition. They crossed the country traveling
through North Dakota, Montana, and Washington before
returning to St. Louis, Missouri, in 1807. Their journals,
published in 1814, created much excitement about the unknown
area and helped Easterners get over their fears of traveling
west beyond the Mississippi. Have you ever discovered a
place that no one else knew about? Did you tell anyone about
it or did you keep it as your secret place? |
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The British Are Coming!
April 19, 1775 -
The American Revolution Began
Have you heard Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "Paul
Revere's Ride"?
One if by land, two if by sea;
And I on the opposite shore will be,
Ready to ride and spread the alarm
Through every Middlesex, village and farm,
For the country folk to be up and to arm.
After looking for the signal (one lantern if the regulars -
the term used for invading British soldiers - were coming by
land, or two if they were coming by sea) in the Christ
Church steeple, Paul Revere and other Americans rode through
the dark of the night on the eve of April 19,1775, to warn
the country folk of the danger to come.
By using a system of signals and word-of-mouth communication
(the telephone hadn't been invented yet), news that the
regulars had arrived spread quickly. At Lexington Green, the
regulars were met by approximately 77 American minutemen
(named "minutemen" because they could be ready for battle in
a minute), and, at Concord, the regulars were forced to
march back to Boston with the Americans firing on them all
the way. This was the beginning of the American Revolution |
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A New Kind of Soldier, Armed With a
Hammer
June 16, 1775 -
Fortifications Built During the Siege
of Boston
On June 16, 1775, during the Siege of Boston, the Second
Continental Congress authorized the building of
fortifications. Fortifications were raised by building
mounds of dirt and fences, and they were reinforced with
vegetation and brush. Colonists were able to fire at the
British from behind these fortifications. The engineers
responsible for building them proved so valuable to the
Revolutionary forces that, four years later, Congress formed
the "corps of engineers." The engineers enjoyed the same
rights, honors, and privileges as other troops but were in
charge of all kinds of construction projects, and they still
are. What else do you suppose they have built?
The Army Corps of Engineers helped build some of
Washington's earliest public buildings. They later directed
the construction of the Washington Monument, Lincoln
Memorial, Arlington National Cemetery, and the Library of
Congress, among other sites. Along with the Work Projects
Administration (WPA) during the Great Depression, the Corps
planned, constructed, and maintained a vast flood control
network along the Mississippi River. The engineers created
dams and locks that made the Mississippi even more navigable
by ships. And there's more.
In World War II, the Corps of Engineers worked in Europe and
the Asian-Pacific Islands as well as at home. In 1942, they
created the Alaska Highway, originally a military supply
route. On D-Day, when Allied forces invaded France, the
Corps cleared a path and laid a road on Omaha Beach for the
attack. Today, the Corps provides one of the nation's
largest supplies of hydroelectric power, cleans up hazardous
waste products, and continues construction of buildings and
other public projects around the world. |
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 100,000 Miles of Apples!
September 26, 1775 -
Johnny Appleseed Was Born
You've probably heard about the legendary "Johnny Appleseed"
who, according to story and song, spread his apple seeds all
over the nation. Did you know there really was a "Johnny
Appleseed"? His name was Jonathan Chapman. Born in
Massachusetts on September 26, 1775, Chapman earned his
nickname because he planted small orchards and individual
apple trees during his travels as he walked across 100,000
square miles of Midwestern wilderness and prairie. He was a
genuine and dedicated professional nurseryman.
In 1801, Chapman transported 16 bushels of apple seeds from
western Pennsylvania down the Ohio River. He had acquired
more than 1,000 acres of farmland on which he developed
apple orchards and nurseries. But he didn't just stay there.
Chapman's work resembled that of a missionary. Each year, he
traveled hundreds of miles on foot wearing a coffee sack
with holes cut out for arms and carrying a cooking pot,
which he is said to have worn like a cap over his flowing
hair.
About 1830, Chapman also acquired land in Fort Wayne,
Indiana. There, he planted a nursery that produced thousands
of seedling apple trees that he sold, traded, and planted
elsewhere. It's no wonder he became a legendary figure with
his cheerful, generous nature, his love of the wilderness,
his gentleness with animals, his devotion to the Bible, his
knowledge of medicinal herbs, his harmony with the Indians,
and above all, his eccentric appearance. Fort Wayne still
celebrates the life of "Johnny Appleseed" with a festival
every September when apples are harvested. Next time you
bite into an apple, think of the man who spread wealth
through apples, Jonathan Chapman, better known as "Johnny
Appleseed." |
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O, Canada
November 13, 1775 -
General Richard Montgomery Captured
Montreal
Have Canada and the United States ever been at war with each
other? While the two nations never engaged in formal war as
independent countries, America did try to conquer its
neighbor to the north when Canada was a colony of England.
America's attempts to invade Canada were never successful,
and at least three of the officers who led assaults on
Canada ended up court-martialed, dead, or exiled.
On November 13, 1775, General Richard Montgomery led
American troops in the capture of Montreal. In the autumn of
that same year, General George Washington ordered Benedict
Arnold to capture the Canadian city of Quebec. Their
presence in Canada, however, was not long lasting.
To reach Canada, Arnold led his 700 men through the harsh
Maine wilderness. After joining forces with Montgomery, the
Americans attacked Quebec. Montgomery was killed during
their attempt to capture the city. Arnold, severely wounded,
retreated to Fort Ticonderoga in New York. Although Arnold
was a loyal American officer in 1775, four years later he
was branded a traitor for assisting the British.
During the War of 1812 with Britain, the United States once
again invaded Canada. Led by General William Hull, the
assault was immediately deflected. Hull was court-martialed
and sentenced to death for cowardice, though he was later
pardoned. Fighting with the British in Canada continued
throughout the war, but in the end, Canada and the United
States became peaceful neighbors. |
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The Power of a Letter
March 24, 1776 -
Washington Wrote a Letter to the
Continental Congress
You can learn a lot from reading old letters. Fortunately
for Americans interested in the country's early history,
George Washington was a talented and frequent letter writer.
On March 24, 1776, General Washington wrote a letter to the
Continental Congress (the governing body of the American
revolutionaries). In it, he described how he had made the
city of Boston safe from future attack by the British, but
that the mischievous British fleet would not leave the
Boston harbor. It was his second letter to Congress about
the attack on Boston.
In an earlier letter on March 19, Washington described in
detail his siege of Boston: He took over a good, high
position on Dorchester Heights, above the British-held city,
and fired cannons on the city and harbor. The British troops
evacuated. Washington couldn't believe that they still
remained on their ships in the harbor after their defeat. He
wrote the March 24 letter, expressing his "surprize and
disappointment" that the fleet was still causing trouble. He
prepared a strong defense of the town just in case they
should return.
Washington armed Fort Hill, another high ground facing the
water, so that it "will greatly annoy any Fleet the Enemy
may send against the Town, and render the Landing of their
Troops exceedingly difficult, If not Impracticable." The
Continental Congress gave Washington a gold medal and a
letter of thanks for capturing Boston.
Washington wrote back with his thanks and also declared his
devotion to the American people. Because of Washington's
letters, we know all this about him and the siege of Boston. |
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First in Freedom
April 12, 1776 -
First in Freedom: North Carolina
Takes a Stand
You may have heard that North Carolina was “first in
flight.” Did you know that on April 12, 1776, North Carolina
also became “first in freedom?”
Americans were tired of being under the control of King
George. The colonists were eager to earn freedom. John Adams
said they “were determined to die poor and to die hard, if
they must die.” In early 1776, the colonists of North
Carolina took a stand against the British. They helped lead
the way to independence.
One thousand patriots from North Carolina defeated 1,600
British loyalists on February 27, 1776. This victory at
Moores Creek Bridge ended British control of the colony.
This victory also inspired the colonists to take more
action.
The colony of North Carolina made America's first official
call for freedom from the British on April 12, 1776. Soon
other colonies also called for freedom. Within three months,
the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of
Independence. North Carolina's official state flag features
the date April 12, 1776 to remind people of the state's
commitment to liberty. |
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One of America's First Spies
September 22, 1776 -
Patriot Nathan Hale Was Hanged
"I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my
country." Have you heard this famous declaration before?
American patriot Nathan Hale said it on September 22, 1776,
his last words before he was hanged for spying on British
troops. How did this come to pass? Hale, born in Coventry,
Connecticut, on June 6, 1755, and a teacher by trade, joined
his five brothers in the fight for independence against the
British.
Five of Nathan Hale's brothers fought the British at
Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775.
Nathan joined them on July 1. From there, he quickly rose to
the rank of captain in the military. He fought under General
George Washington in New York, as British General William
Howe began a military build-up on Long Island. Washington
took his army onto Manhattan Island. At the battle of Harlem
Heights, Washington, facing Howe in battle yet again, asked
for a volunteer to go on a spy mission behind enemy lines.
Hale stepped forward.
Disguised as a Dutch schoolmaster, Nathan Hale set out on
his mission on September 10. For a week he gathered
information on the position of British troops, but was
captured while returning to the American side. Because of
incriminating papers Hale possessed, the British knew he was
a spy. It is said that his cousin, a British sympathizer
under Howe's command, betrayed him. Howe ordered young Hale
to be hanged the following day. That's when Hale, who gave
his life for his country, said those famous words. |
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It's An Honor!
December 5, 1776 -
Honor Society Phi Beta Kappa Was
Founded
You probably have an Honor Roll or list for students at your
school with outstanding achievements and high grades, and
perhaps you're on it. At the college level, there is Phi
Beta Kappa. Founded at the College of William and Mary in
Williamsburg, Virginia, on December 5, 1776, Phi Beta Kappa
is America's most prestigious honor society. Membership in
the organization is based on outstanding achievement in the
liberal arts and sciences and typically limited to students
in the upper tenth of their graduating class. But it's
changed a lot from its beginnings.
Organized by a group of enterprising undergraduates, Phi
Beta Kappa was the nation's first Greek-letter society. Its
name is formed from the initial letters of the Greek words
for philosophia biou kubernetes, meaning "Philosophy, the
Guide of Life." Members met regularly to write, debate, and
socialize. They also planned to expand the organization. In
doing so, they established the practices and symbols typical
of American fraternities and sororities: an oath of secrecy,
a code of laws, mottoes in Greek and Latin, and an elaborate
initiation ritual. When the Revolutionary War forced William
and Mary to close for a time, Harvard and Yale took over the
new Phi Beta Kappa tradition.
Phi Beta Kappa spread to colleges throughout New England. By
the end of the 19th century, the once secretive, exclusively
male social group had dropped its oath of secrecy, opened
its doors to women, and transformed into a national honor
society. Now it is dedicated to cultivating and recognizing
excellence in the liberal arts and sciences. More than 270
chapters serve more than 500,000 living members, including
many past and present Supreme Court justices and former
presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton. The society also
offers book and essay awards. Think about working toward and
joining an honor society at school. Someday you may be a Phi
Beta Kappa! |
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A More Perfect Union - Take 1
November 15, 1777 -
The Articles of Confederation Were
Adopted
How does a country become a country? When the Colonies
declared their independence from Britain, they had a flag
and an army. What they lacked was a government.
If you were forming a new country, how would you run it?
Would there be one leader, or representatives from each
state? Would larger states have more representatives and
more votes than smaller states? The second Continental
Congress debated similar issues for one year. On November
15, 1777, the second Continental Congress adopted the
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. Then they
needed approval from the states.
Still at war with Great Britain, the colonists were not
eager to establish another powerful national government.
Three-and-a-half years passed before the states ratified
(approved of) the Articles.
As with anyone's first try at something, the Articles of
Confederation were not perfect. While they required Congress
to regulate the military, for example, they did not ensure
that the states would send people to serve.
Eventually replaced by the United States Constitution of
1789, the Articles of Confederation did provide some
stability during the Revolutionary War years. Most
important, they provided valuable lessons in self-governance
and somewhat calmed fears about a powerful central
government.
Are there changes in the government that you would like to
make? |
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A Revolutionary Partnership
February 6, 1778 -
France Allied with American Colonies
Friends, and in French, amis! On February 6, 1778, Benjamin
Franklin was in France signing the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance. The Treaty of Amity and
Commerce recognized the U.S. as an independent nation and
promoted trade between France and America. The second
agreement, the Treaty of Alliance, made the fledgling United
States and France allies against Great Britain in the
Revolutionary War. The French decided to back the U.S. in
its military efforts until the U.S. had full independence
from Great Britain. After that, the treaty required France
and the U.S. to work together on any peace agreement. Did
you know the French helped the U.S. to win the Revolutionary
War?
France had been secretly aiding the American Colonies since
1776, because France was angry at Britain over the loss of
Colonial territory in the French and Indian War. In 1776,
the Continental Congress sent diplomat Benjamin Franklin,
along with Silas Deane and Arthur Lee, to France to secure a
formal alliance. When Franklin came to the signing ceremony,
he wore, as a symbol, the same brown velvet suit he had worn
when he appeared before Britain's Privy Council in 1774. At
the time, he was accused of theft for having brought to
light British documents that showed the British were
purposefully repressing the Colonies.
France aided the colonists by providing military armaments
and loans. France's support deepened after the Americans
beat the British in the October 1777 Battle of Saratoga,
proving themselves committed to independence and worthy of a
formal alliance. King Louis XVI approved financial
assistance to the American colonists only four days after
Franklin and his comrades requested it.
During the Revolution, France sent an estimated 12,000
soldiers and 32,000 sailors to the American war effort, the
most famous of whom was the Marquis of Lafayette. He became
a good friend (ami) with American commander in chief George
Washington in the process. |
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Bluffing the British
February 25, 1779 -
British Lieutenant Governor Henry
Hamilton Surrendered
Before the Revolutionary War, hundreds of colonists and
their families settled beyond the Appalachian Mountains and
beyond the protection of the Colonies. When the war began,
the settlers became vulnerable to attack not only from the
Native Americans but also from the British.
Lieutenant Colonel George Rogers Clark learned that British
Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton was paying Native
Americans to raid the American settlements. With Virginia
Governor Patrick Henry's support, Clark marshaled volunteers
from among the frontiersmen and set out to attack British
outposts along the Mississippi River. They also intended to
capture Hamilton.
Clark discovered that Hamilton was strengthening his
defenses at Fort Sackville at Vincennes, Indiana. To capture
the fort, Clark needed to attack soon. He could rely on his
men's expert marksmanship, but with only 200 buckskin-clad
pioneers under his command, he needed a plan.
Clark arrived in Vincennes on February 23, 1779. He ordered
his men to march all the company's flags back and forth
behind a bluff in sight of the fort. Hamilton, thinking he
was overwhelmed by a company of 600 men instead of 200,
thought he should surrender. He requested that Clark meet
with him at a nearby church on February 24 to discuss terms.
On the morning of February 25, Hamilton surrendered. He was
imprisoned at Williamsburg, and the British never regained
control of the fort. An American flag was raised above the
fort and cannon shots were fired in celebration. |
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Freedom
October 19, 1781 -
The British Surrender at Yorktown
America declared its independence in 1776, but it took
another five years to win freedom from the British. That day
came on October 19, 1781, when the British General Charles
Cornwallis surrendered his troops in Yorktown, Virginia.
General Cornwallis brought 8,000 British troops to Yorktown.
They expected help from British ships sent from New York.
The British ships never arrived. That was lucky for General
George Washington and the Continental army. The thirteen
colonies found their opportunity to beat the world's largest
empire.
George Washington had help from the French. The French navy
kept British ships from entering through the York River or
Chesapeake Bay. French troops led by General Jean-Baptiste
Rochambeau also joined General Washington.
Rochambeau and Washington gathered an army of 17,000
soldiers to take Yorktown back from the British in early
October. The army continued a siege on Yorktown. They
surrounded the town. The siege cut off supplies. After
awhile, the British ran out of food and ammunition. They
could not continue fighting.
Surrounded by French and American troops, General Cornwallis
had no choice but to surrender. The two sides signed the
formal agreement of the British surrender on October 19.
This meant the end of the fighting and the beginning of
American independence.
According to one legend, when General Cornwallis and his
British troops marched out of Yorktown, they played a tune
called “The World Turned Upside Down.” Can you think of
other times in history where the underdog turned things
“upside down”? |
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A Storm From the South: Calhoun
March 18, 1782 -
John C. Calhoun Was Born
As you get older and look back on the past, you'll be able
to list all kinds of significant experiences and jobs in
your life. John C. Calhoun, born March 18, 1782, near
Abbeville, South Carolina, looked back on a life of many
important political jobs. He was a congressman, senator,
secretary of war, secretary of state and vice president of
the United States. He was also known for having an explosive
temper. It wasn't unusual for him to become enraged when
defending what he believed in.
Calhoun believed in the South's right to continue slavery.
He fought to preserve slavery all his life, even as an old
man at the very end of his career as a senator from South
Carolina. He opposed the Compromise of 1850 because it
limited slavery as the country expanded westward. For a
gathering of Congress, Calhoun wrote a 42-page speech
against the Compromise. At 68 years old, a dying man,
ghost-like and bony, he walked into the meeting still
prepared to fight.
Too ill to read the speech himself, he asked another
senator, James Murray Mason of Virginia, to read it. In
Calhoun's usual tone, it accused the North of aggression and
shunned compromise. He proposed that the North and South
should part in peace as two separate nations if they could
not settle their differences. But Congress voted for
compromise. Calhoun died shortly after, in 1850, ending a
full and very focused political life. Have you ever known
someone with a temperament like John Calhoun's? Would ideas
that you strongly believe in make you fight this way? |
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Congress Grants Connecticut the
Western Reserve
What in the west was "reserved" and who reserved it?
When the American Revolution ended in 1783, the United
States gained the Northwest Territory – an area of land that
included the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. Four states,
Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Connecticut, claimed
portions of the Northwest Territory for themselves.
Smaller states without western land claims argued that if
the land claims of the larger states were recognized, people
and businesses would leave the smaller states for the
wealthier larger states. The only solution was for these
lands to be turned over to the U.S. government.
All the states but one eventually did so. Do you know which
state was the holdout?
It was Connecticut, which claimed land, called the Western
Reserve, all the way to northeastern Ohio. Connecticut
wanted the land to aid citizens who had suffered serious
losses during the Revolution. Do you know how large the
state of Connecticut would be today if it still retained
that land?
This land stretched west from Connecticut to northeastern
Ohio. Congress granted Connecticut a portion of its claim in
1786, and in 1792, Connecticut gave 500,000 acres of that
land to citizens whose homes were burned during the American
Revolution. In 1795 the Connecticut Land Company bought the
remaining land in order to resell it and Cleveland was
established in 1796 as the first permanent settlement in the
reserve. In 1800, Connecticut and the United States agreed
to make the Western Reserve part of the Ohio Territory. |
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Home for the Holidays
December 23, 1783 -
Commander in Chief George Washington
Resigned
It was an emotional day for George Washington, when he said
a final farewell to his officers. Three months earlier, on
September 3, 1783, the British had recognized American
independence with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. As
commander in chief of the army, Washington had seen his
troops through countless battles, the deaths of friends and
comrades, and months of near starvation and freezing
weather. After the British ships left New York Harbor on
December 4, Washington set out for the Maryland State House
in Annapolis, where the Continental Congress was meeting.
As Washington rode to Maryland, well wishers flocked to
congratulate and thank him for his role in the nation's
military victory over Great Britain. On December 23, 1783,
George Washington entered the senate chamber of the Maryland
State House and officially resigned his commission as
commander in chief of the Continental Army. What was next
for the hero of the new nation? He went home.
Washington set out at dawn for Mount Vernon, his plantation
on the Potomac River in Virginia. He arrived home before
nightfall on Christmas Eve, a private citizen for the first
time in almost nine years. Six years later, Washington was
back in "service" as the president of the United States. |
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Where Is Everybody?
January 14, 1784 -
The Continental Congress Ratified the
Treaty of Paris
When did the Revolutionary War officially come to an end? On
September 3, 1783, more than a year after the last shots
were fired, a peace treaty was drawn up in Paris. Under the
terms of the treaty, the United States was granted territory
as far west as the Mississippi River.
After the Treaty of Paris was signed, it was sent to the
Continental Congress. The United States had six months to
ratify (approve) the document and return it to England. With
the journey requiring approximately two months, the treaty
needed to be on its way back to England by January. The
valuable document almost did not arrive in time.
A ratifying convention was scheduled at the Maryland State
House in November, but many of the delegates did not arrive
right away. By January 12, only seven of the 13 states had
sent their representatives. Time was running short; where
were the other delegates?
Operating under the weak Articles of Confederation, the
Continental Congress lacked the power to enforce attendance
at the convention. On January 13, the convention needed one
more delegate. Finally, South Carolina Representative
Richard Beresford, who was ill, traveled to Maryland. As
soon as he arrived, the vote was taken, and on January 14,
1784, the treaty was ratified. The United States was
officially an independent nation. |
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Extra, Extra, Read All About It!
September 21, 1784 -
The Nation's First Daily Newspaper
Began Publication
Do you get a newspaper delivered to your house each day? The
nation's first daily newspaper, the Pennsylvania Packet and
Daily Advertiser, began publication on September 21, 1784.
Many independent newspapers ran before that on a weekly or
monthly basis. America's first independent newspaper, the
New England Courant, was published by Benjamin Franklin's
older brother in 1721. By the start of the Revolutionary War
in 1775, there were 37 independent newspapers to keep the
colonists informed.
During the 1780s and 1790s, citizens turned more and more to
the press to keep up with political changes in the country.
In response, several city newspapers began publishing daily.
The newspapers debated new amendments to the U.S.
Constitution. Of course, it was the First Amendment to the
Constitution, guaranteeing freedom of the press, that
ensured newspapers would remain an important source of
political debate and news. Big events such as the
Spanish-American War created even greater markets for
dailies. What do you like to read about in your local daily
newspaper? |
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What's Growing in the Garden State?
December 18, 1787 -
New Jersey Approved the Constitution
It is nicknamed the "Garden State," and yet it is one of the
most developed and industrialized states in America. Famous
for its beaches and for hosting the Miss America Pageant in
Atlantic City, it also exports manufactured goods around the
world. What state is it? Approving the Constitution on
December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to join
the Union, following Delaware and Pennsylvania. This diverse
state has a long history. Prior to the American Revolution,
New Jersey was part of the original land grant to the Duke
of York. It was divided up among different caretakers in
1676, and divided again and again until Queen Anne, in April
1702, reunited the land into one province with one governor.
New Jersey gained its nickname of the "Garden State" in the
18th century, because it had so much rich and fertile soil.
But over the next two centuries, farmland has given way to
urban industry. In addition to exporting goods all over the
world, New Jersey is also a popular tourist destination. One
hundred twenty-five miles of coastline with cool ocean
breezes tempt city dwellers to vacation here. President
Grant was among the vacationers in the 1800s who flocked to
resorts at Longbranch and Cape May. Open in 1870, the famous
Atlantic City Boardwalk continues to draw visitors from all
around the world.
New Jersey is home to Princeton University and Rutgers
University. Singer Frank Sinatra was from "Jersey," as were
suffragist Alice Paul, football coach Alonzo Stagg, and
musicians Bruce Springsteen and Lauryn Hill. It is also home
to Lucy the Elephant, an American landmark built in Atlantic
City in 1881. President Woodrow Wilson stepped inside the
giant elephant-shaped building, Lucy, as did car
manufacturer Henry Ford. New Jersey often is seen in the
shadow of its metropolis neighbor New York. But residents
know the amazing resources the state has to offer, as well
as its diverse and lively personality.
New Jersey has more diners than any other state and is the
shopping mall capital of the world, with seven malls in a
25-mile radius. The "Garden State" still manages to produce
two-thirds of the world's eggplants.
New Jersey is a state of many firsts too: the first ever
baseball game was played in Hoboken; inventor Thomas Edison
had his first lab here; and John P. Holland took his
invention, the submarine, for its first ride down the
Passaic River in New Jersey. Visit the "Garden State" and
see for yourself what's growing in New Jersey. |
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What is That Curious Book?
March 13, 1789 -
Enoch Brooks Signed Hieroglyphick
Bible
What do you think of this "curious" book? These pages are
from A Curious Hieroglyphick Bible, printed in the U.S. in
1788. At that time, "curious" meant carefully made. This
particular copy of the children's book, one of only a few
known to exist in the world, probably belonged to a boy
named Enoch Brooks. Someone wrote "Enoch Brooks' Book,
Princeton, March 13th, 1789" in permanent ink.
The illustrations you see are made from woodcuts. Perhaps
you've made them in art class, carving around an image on a
block of wood, smearing ink on the carved picture, and
pressing it to paper. This book contains nearly 500 woodcut
prints, more than any other in America at the time. Who
printed this curious Bible?
A Curious Hieroglyphick Bible is one of more than one
hundred children's books printed by Isaiah Thomas
(1749-1831) (not the same Isaiah Thomas who was a recent
basketball star). Thomas learned about printing as a young
apprentice. During a long career, Thomas published numerous
popular titles for children and adults. Thomas also made a
stand for American independence with his printing skills.
How did he do this?
During the early part of the American Revolution, Thomas's
newspaper, the Massachusetts Spy, published eyewitness
accounts of the battles of Lexington and Concord. These
stories strengthened the popular resistance to British rule
that would lead to the country's independence. His newspaper
made the British authorities angry. To continue his work,
Thomas fled to Worcester, Massachusetts. There he created
the Massachusetts Magazine. This lovely engraving was
featured in an issue in 1789.
A lover of books, Thomas had a collection of 8,000 titles,
which he donated at the end of his life to the American
Antiquarian Society. Today, the society has two-thirds of
all the books printed in the United States up to 1821! How
many books do you have in your library? Do you or your
family have any "curious" books? |
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A Constitutional Army
September 29, 1789 -
Congress Officially Created the U.S.
Military
In its very first session, the United States Congress had a
lot of decisions to make. One important topic the first
representatives and senators needed to address was
establishing the U.S. military. There already was a colonial
army--the Continental Army--that had fought the British in
the American Revolution and won under General George
Washington. But this army was not the official army of the
United States.
Finally, on September 29, 1789, the last day of its first
session, the U.S. Congress passed an act to establish the
United States military. However, this happened only after
President Washington reminded them, twice!
Washington wrote a letter on August 7, 1789, to remind the
Senate and the House of Representatives to create provisions
for the U.S. military. He told them he didn't need to argue
for an issue on which the "honor, safety and well being of
our Country so evidently and essentially depend: But it may
not be amiss to observe that I am particularly anxious it
should receive an early attention as circumstances will
admit." The Secretary of War, Henry Knox, read this aloud to
the members of Congress, but they did not immediately act
upon it.
Three days later, on August 10, Washington again urged
Congress to address the issue. Finally, on September 29, the
House of Representatives and the Senate passed the bill that
established the armed forces of the United States of
America. This probably meant very little change to the men
already serving, but it meant a lot to George Washington.
Over time, the United States Navy, Marines, and Air Force
would join the ground troops. What do you know about the
development of the different military branches since then? |
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